MECHANICAL ENGG : INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
fig: wankel engine
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IC engine
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Definition:
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical energy.
Combustion Type:
Uses and Applications:
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives).
Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a very high power is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships. They are also frequently used for electric generators and by industry.
Combustion Mechanism:
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers.
Types of Fuels it uses:
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas.
Comparison of IC Engine with Steam Engine:
a) Both IC engine and steam engine are basically heat engines used to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
b) In IC engine, the combustion of fuel (liquid or gas) takes place inside the engine cylinder. Where as, in steam engine combustion occurs outside engine, in a boiler to raise the temperature which in turn is used in the heat engine.
c) The working temperature and pressure inside an IC engine are much higher than that of steam engine. It requires the design be robust and strong temperature and pressure resistant.
d) IC engines are mostly single acting while most of the steam engines are double acting. Hence, no need of stuffing box in IC engines.
e) IC engine produces high efficiency in the range of 35% to 40%, while steam engine can produce work with an efficiency in the range of 10% to 15%.
f) Compared to long starting procedure of a steam engine, an IC engine can be started instantenously.
Classification of IC engines:
IC engines can be classified on different characteristics basis.
BORE: The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore. It is always measured in mm.
STROKE: The distance travelled by the piston from one of its dead center positions to the other dead center position.
DEAD CENTERS: They correspond to the positions occupied by the piston at the end of its stroke where the center lines of the connecting rod and crank are in the same straight line. These conditions arise at two specific positions of the piston. At the start of the journey of stroke and at the end of the stroke are these two specific conditions, which are named as Top Dead Center (TDC) and Bottom Dead Center or BDC for vertical engines and IDC or Inner Dead Center and ODC or Outer Dead Center for horizontal engines.
TDC: The top most position of the piston towards the cover end side of the cylinder of a vertical engine is called Top Dead Center or TDC.
BDC: The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder of a vertical engine is known as BDC.
CRANK THROW/ CRANK RADIUS: The distance between the center of main shaft and center of crank pin is known as Crank Throw or Crank Radius. This distance will be equal to half the stroke length.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT/ SWEPT VOLUME: It is the volume through which the piston sweeps for its one stroke. Swept Volume is represented by Vs and it is equal to cross-sectional area of the piston x stroke length.
Vs = {(π x d²)/4} x stroke length (L)
∴ Vs = (π.d².L)/4
CLEARENCE VOLUME: It is the volume included between the piston and the cylinder head when it is at TDC (for vertical engines) or IDC (for horizonal engine). The piston can never enters this portion of the cylinder during its travel. Clearence volume (Vc) is generally expressed as percentage of the swept volume and is denoted by Vc.
COMPRESSION RATIO: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume. If swept volume is (Vs) and clearance volume is (Vc) then total volume of the cylinder V = Vs + Vc and Compression Ratio will be equals to (Vs + Vc)/Vc. For petrol engine it varies from 5:1 to 9:1 and for diesel engines from 14 : 1 to 22 : 1.
PISTON SPEED: It is the distance travelled by piston in one minute. If rpm of engine shaft is (N) and length of stroke is (L), then piston speed will be 2LN m/min.
(i) Internal combustion (IC): The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical energy.
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical energy.
Combustion Type:
- Intermittent Combustion:
- Continuous Combustion:
Uses and Applications:
Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy density. Generally using fossil fuel (mainly petroleum), these engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotives).
Internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas turbines as well where a very high power is required, such as in jet aircraft, helicopters, and large ships. They are also frequently used for electric generators and by industry.
Combustion Mechanism:
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the reaction of a fuel, typically with oxygen from the air (though it is possible to inject nitrous oxide in order to do more of the same thing and gain a power boost). The combustion process typically results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers.
Types of Fuels it uses:
The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel fuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane. Except for the fuel delivery components, most internal combustion engines that are designed for gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications. Large diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some engines with appropriate modifications can also run on hydrogen gas.
Comparison of IC Engine with Steam Engine:
a) Both IC engine and steam engine are basically heat engines used to convert heat energy into mechanical energy.
b) In IC engine, the combustion of fuel (liquid or gas) takes place inside the engine cylinder. Where as, in steam engine combustion occurs outside engine, in a boiler to raise the temperature which in turn is used in the heat engine.
c) The working temperature and pressure inside an IC engine are much higher than that of steam engine. It requires the design be robust and strong temperature and pressure resistant.
d) IC engines are mostly single acting while most of the steam engines are double acting. Hence, no need of stuffing box in IC engines.
e) IC engine produces high efficiency in the range of 35% to 40%, while steam engine can produce work with an efficiency in the range of 10% to 15%.
f) Compared to long starting procedure of a steam engine, an IC engine can be started instantenously.
Classification of IC engines:
IC engines can be classified on different characteristics basis.
a) Type of Ignition process:
i) Spark Ignition or SI engine, ii) Compression Ignition or CI engine, iii) Hot spot ignition engine. |
b) Type of Fuel used:
i) Petrol/Gasoline engine, ii) Diesel engine, iii) Gas engine. |
c) Number of Strokes per cycle:
i) Four stroke engine, ii) Two stroke engine. |
d) Type of Cooling system:
i) Air cooled engine, ii) Water cooled engine, iii) Evaporative cooling engine. |
e) Cycle of Operation:
i) Otto cycle engine, ii) Diesel cycle engine, iii) Dual cycle engine. |
f) Method of fuel injection:
i) Carburettor engine, ii) Air injection engine, iii) Airless or solid injection engine. |
g) Arrangement of Cylinders:
i) Vertical engine, ii) Horizontal engine, iii) Radial engine, iv) V engine, v) Opposed cylinder engine, vi) Opposed piston engine. |
h) Application fields:
i) Stationary engine, ii) Automotive engine, iii) Marine engine, iv) Aircraft engine, v) Locomotive engine. |
i) Valve Locations:
i) Over-head valve engine, ii) Side valve engine. |
j) Speed of the engine:
i) Slow speed engine, ii) Medium speed engine, iii) High speed engine. |
k) Method of Governing:
i) Hit and Miss governed engine, ii) Qualitatively governed engine, iii) Quantatively governed engine. |
TERMINOLOGY: IC ENGINE
BORE: The inside diameter of the cylinder is known as bore. It is always measured in mm.
STROKE: The distance travelled by the piston from one of its dead center positions to the other dead center position.
DEAD CENTERS: They correspond to the positions occupied by the piston at the end of its stroke where the center lines of the connecting rod and crank are in the same straight line. These conditions arise at two specific positions of the piston. At the start of the journey of stroke and at the end of the stroke are these two specific conditions, which are named as Top Dead Center (TDC) and Bottom Dead Center or BDC for vertical engines and IDC or Inner Dead Center and ODC or Outer Dead Center for horizontal engines.
TDC: The top most position of the piston towards the cover end side of the cylinder of a vertical engine is called Top Dead Center or TDC.
BDC: The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side of the cylinder of a vertical engine is known as BDC.
CRANK THROW/ CRANK RADIUS: The distance between the center of main shaft and center of crank pin is known as Crank Throw or Crank Radius. This distance will be equal to half the stroke length.
PISTON DISPLACEMENT/ SWEPT VOLUME: It is the volume through which the piston sweeps for its one stroke. Swept Volume is represented by Vs and it is equal to cross-sectional area of the piston x stroke length.
Vs = {(π x d²)/4} x stroke length (L)
∴ Vs = (π.d².L)/4
CLEARENCE VOLUME: It is the volume included between the piston and the cylinder head when it is at TDC (for vertical engines) or IDC (for horizonal engine). The piston can never enters this portion of the cylinder during its travel. Clearence volume (Vc) is generally expressed as percentage of the swept volume and is denoted by Vc.
COMPRESSION RATIO: It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume to the clearance volume. If swept volume is (Vs) and clearance volume is (Vc) then total volume of the cylinder V = Vs + Vc and Compression Ratio will be equals to (Vs + Vc)/Vc. For petrol engine it varies from 5:1 to 9:1 and for diesel engines from 14 : 1 to 22 : 1.
PISTON SPEED: It is the distance travelled by piston in one minute. If rpm of engine shaft is (N) and length of stroke is (L), then piston speed will be 2LN m/min.
TERMINOLOGY:
(i) Internal combustion (IC): The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and pressure gases, which are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to a movable component of the engine, such as the pistons or turbine blades and by moving it over a distance, generate useful mechanical energy.
(ii) Spark Ignition(SI): An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is started by use of a spark plug.
(iii) Compression Ignition(CI): An engine in which the combustion process starts when the air fuel mixture self ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by the high compression. CI engines are often called diesel engines especially in the non technical community.
(iv) Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of most engines (not always) and dead because the piston stops at this point. Because in some engines top-dead-center is not at the top of the engine (e.g., horizontally opposed engines, radial engines, etc.,), some sources call this position Head-End-Dead-Center (HEDC). Some sources call this position Top-Center (TC). When an occurrence in a cycle happens before TDC, it is often abbreviated bTDC or bTC. When the occurrence happens after TDC or a TC. When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a minimum called the clearance volume.
(v) Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to the crankshaft. Some sources call this Crank-End-Dead-Center(CEDC) because it is not always at the bottom of the engine. Some sources call this point Bottom-Center(BC). During an engine cycle things happen before Bottom-Dead-Center, bBDC or bBC, and after bottom-deadcenter, aBDC or aBC.
(vi) Direct Injection:Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of an engine. Engines either have one main combustion chamber (open chamber) or a divided combustion chamber made up of a main chamber and a smaller connected secondary chamber.
(vii) Indirect injection: Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an engine with a divided combustion chamber.
(viii) Displacement volume: Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one stroke. Displacement cans b given for one cylinder or for the entire engine (one cylinder time’s number of cylinders). Some literature calls this swept volume.
(ix) Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI): Spark ignition engine with fuel injectors mounted in combustion chambers. Gasoline fuel is injected directly into cylinders during compression stroke.
(x) Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI): Compression-Ignition engine operating with a homogeneous airfuel charge instead of the diffusion combustion mixture normally used in CI engines.
(xi) Smart Engine: either computer controls that regulate operating characteristics such as air fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake tuning, etc.Computer inputs come from electronic, mechanical, thermal and chemical sensors located throughout the engine. Computers in some automobiles are even programmed to adjust engine operation for things like valve water and combustion chamber deposit build up as the engine ages. In automobiles, the same computers are used to make smart cars by controlling the steering, brakes, exhaust system, suspension, seats, anti-theft systems, sound-endear analysis navigation entertainment systems, shifting, doors, noise, suppression, environment, comfort,etc.(o) Engine Management System: Computer and electronics used to control smart engines.
(xii) Wide- Open throttle (WOT): Engine operated with throttle valve fully open when maximum power and/or speed is desired.
(xiii) Ignition Delay (ID): Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of combustion.
(r) Air Fuel Ratio: Ratio of mass air to mass of fuel input into engine.
(xiv) Fuel-Air ratio: Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.
(xv) Brake Maximum torque: (BMT): Speed at which maximum torque occurs.
(xvi) Overhead Valve (OHV): Valves mounted in engine head.
(xvii) Overhead Cam (OHC): Camshaft mounted in engine head, giving more direct control of valves which are also mounted in engine head.
(xviii) Fuel Injection (FI):
MAIN ENGINE COMPONENTS:
The following is the list of major components found in most reciprocating internal combustion engines.
- Block: Body of engine containing the cylinders made of cast iron or aluminum. In many older engines the valves and the valve ports were contained in the block. The block of water cooled engines includes a water jacket cast around the cylinders. On air cooled engines the exterior surface of the block has cooling fins.
- Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine cycle either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms, and tappets). Most modern automobile engines have one or more camshafts mounted in the engine head (Overhead cam). Older engines had camshafts in the crank case. Crankshafts are generally made of forget steel or cast iron and driven off the crankshaft by means of a belt or chain (Timing chain). To reduce weight, some cams are made from a hollow shaft with the cam lobes press-fit on. In four stroke cycle engines the camshaft rotates at half engine speed.
- Carburetor: Venturi flow device that meters the proper amount of fuel into the air flow by means of pressure
differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all automobile (and other) engines. It is still used on low cost small engines like lawn mowers but is uncommon on new automobiles.
- Catalytic converter: Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytical material that promotes reduction of emission by chemical reaction.
- Choke: Butterfly valve at carburetor intake, used to create rich fuel-air mixture in intake system for cold weather starting.
- Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston face where the combustion occurs. The size of the combustion chamber continuously changes from a minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum when the piston is at BDC. The term cylinder is sometimes synonymous with combustion chamber (e.g., the engine was firing on all cylinders). Some engines have open combustion chambers which consist of one chamber for each cylinder.
- Other engines have divided chambers which consist of dual chambers on each cylinder connected by an orifice passage.
- CRANK CASE: In IC Engine terminology, Crank Case is the housing of Crank Shaft. It is the largest cavity in engine and is fixed to cylinder.
