Friday, 22 November 2024
HALO-ALKANE
CBSE Class 12 Chemistry
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Module 1: Introduction and Classification
- Haloalkanes: Alkyl halides classified based on the carbon atom bonded to the halogen (primary, secondary, tertiary).
- Haloarenes: Halogen atoms attached to an aromatic ring (aryl halides, vinylic halides, etc.).
- Types of bonds: sp² (in aryl/vinylic) vs. sp³ (in alkyl halides).
Module 2: Nature of C-X Bond
- Polarization due to electronegativity differences between carbon and halogen.
- Bond strength and reactivity trends (R-I > R-Br > R-Cl > R-F).
Module 3: Preparation of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
- From alcohols using reagents like PCl₅, PBr₃, and SOCl₂.
- Free radical halogenation of alkanes.
- Addition of hydrogen halides or halogens to alkenes and alkynes.
- Special reactions: Finkelstein, Swarts, and Hunsdiecker reactions.
Module 4: Physical Properties
- Boiling points: Depend on molecular weight and type of halide.
- Solubility: Haloalkanes are insoluble in water due to lack of hydrogen bonding.
- Density trends (Iodides > Bromides > Chlorides > Fluorides).
Module 5: Chemical Properties
- Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2):
- SN1: Two-step mechanism, favors tertiary halides.
- SN2: Single-step mechanism, favors primary halides.
- Elimination Reactions: Dehydrohalogenation producing alkenes, follows Saytzeff's rule.
- Reduction Reactions: Reduction of alkyl halides to alkanes using Zn/HCl or red phosphorus/HI.
- Reactions with Metals:
- Wurtz reaction (alkyl halides with sodium).
- Fitting reaction (aryl halides with sodium).
Module 6: Reactions of Haloarenes
- Electrophilic substitution: Nitration, halogenation, sulfonation.
- Nucleophilic substitution: Requires strong conditions due to resonance stabilization of aryl halides.
Module 7: Environmental Effects
- Impact of polyhalogen compounds (e.g., CFCs) on the ozone layer.
Module 8: Exercises and Applications
- Conversions involving halides, e.g., propene to 1-bromopropane or benzene to bromobenzene.
- Problem-solving to strengthen reaction mechanisms and applications.
Thursday, 21 November 2024
NATIONAL INCOME
National Income - Module 1
Introduction to National Income
1.1 What is National Income?
1. What is the definition of National Income?
- A. Total income of a country's citizens
- B. Total value of goods and services produced in a country
- C. Total consumption by households
- D. Total investment in a country
2. National Income is a measure of:
- A. Total economic activity
- B. Total income of the government
- C. The total wealth of a country
- D. The total income of individuals only
3. Which of the following is included in National Income?
- A. Only the income of government employees
- B. Income from non-market activities
- C. Income from production of goods and services
- D. Only income from exports
4. Which sector does National Income measure?
- A. Only the government sector
- B. Only the private sector
- C. The entire economy, including government, private sector, and foreign trade
- D. Only the trade sector
5. The total value of goods and services produced in a country during a given period is:
- A. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
- B. Gross National Product (GNP)
- C. Net National Product (NNP)
- D. None of the above
1.2 Importance of National Income
1. Why is National Income important for a country?
- A. To measure the income of rich people
- B. To compare the standard of living between countries
- C. To understand the total consumption in the economy
- D. None of the above
2. National Income helps in:
- A. Understanding economic growth
- B. Comparing the wealth of individuals
- C. Measuring the inflation rate
- D. Calculating total investments only
3. The standard of living of people can be compared using:
- A. National Income per capita
- B. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
- C. Unemployment rate
- D. All of the above
4. National Income is used by governments to:
- A. Allocate resources effectively
- B. Determine tax rates
- C. Analyze social welfare programs
- D. All of the above
5. National Income is useful for:
- A. Calculating inflation
- B. Formulating economic policies
- C. Measuring unemployment rates
- D. All of the above
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